Aggression, Violence, and the Human Condition: A Multidimensional Review

Scientific collection Approach -Sarah Fowler 

 Introduction

Aggression and violence are complex human behaviors shaped by an interplay of biological, psychological, sociocultural, and environmental factors. Contemporary research emphasizes that individual characteristics, such as gender identity, age, and beliefs, interact dynamically with cultural norms and environmental contexts, producing diverse patterns of aggression across populations (Bosson, 2025; Nagoshi et al., 2024). Understanding these interactions is essential for designing prevention and intervention strategies across societies.

Gender Identity and Aggression

Gender identity significantly influences both the perpetration and experience of aggression. Masculine identity may encourage proactive aggression for dominance, whereas threats to gender identity can provoke defensive aggression (Bosson, 2025). Cultural beliefs about gender roles also modulate these behaviors, with rigid hierarchies associated with higher rates of intimate partner violence, pressure, stress,  or crisis contexts (Nagoshi et al., 2024).

Table 1: Gender Identity, Beliefs, and Aggression Across Cultures

Variable	Effect on Aggression	Cultural Notes	Key Reference
Masculine identity	↑ proactive aggression	Observed across Western and Eastern contexts	Bosson, 2025
Gender uncertainty	↑ defensive aggression	More pronounced in societies with strict gender norms	Bosson, 2025
Negative gender beliefs	↑ intimate partner violence	Cross-cultural; stronger in patriarchal societies	Nagoshi et al., 2024
Positive gender beliefs	↓ violence	Protective across ethnic groups	Nagoshi et al., 2024

Age and Developmental Factors

Age modulates aggression, particularly during adolescence. Social and environmental factors interact with developmental stages, affecting aggressive outcomes. For example, adolescents with high legal cognition and access to positive environmental contexts, such as green spaces,  exhibit lower aggression (Fan et al., 2025). Conversely, exposure to violence and inequality amplifies risks (Adhia et al., 2024).

  Age, Environment, and Aggression

[Adolescent Stage]

       |

       v

[Legal Cognition] ---> [Aggression] (↓)

       ^

       |

[Positive Environmental Contexts] ---> amplify protective effect

Beliefs, Cultural Norms, and Violence

Beliefs shape the social acceptability of aggression. Societies endorsing strict hierarchies or unequal gender roles legitimize violence. Relational aggression, such as social exclusion, varies across individualistic versus collectivistic cultures, highlighting the role of cultural context (Springer, 2023).

Table 2: Beliefs and Cultural Norms Affecting Aggression

Belief / Norm	Effect on Aggression	Cultural Context	Reference
Hierarchical gender norms	↑ intimate partner violence	Patriarchal societies	Nagoshi et al., 2024
Relational aggression norms	↑ peer-directed aggression	Collectivist vs. individualist differences	Springer, 2023
Legal awareness	↓ aggression	Universal protective factor	Fan et al., 2025

Environmental Contexts of Aggression

Environmental conditions, both social and physical, play crucial roles in aggression. Natural environments, for example,  green spaces.  Positive legal frameworks reduce aggression. Conversely, heat exposure or social disorder can increase aggressive behaviors (Fan et al., 2025).

Environmental Influences on Aggression

[Physical Environment]

   |--> Positive (green spaces, safe neighborhoods) ---> ↓ Aggression

   |--> Negative (heat, pollution, crowding) -----------> ↑ Aggression

 

[Social Environment]

   |--> Strong norms & legal cognition -----------------> ↓ Aggression

   |--> Cultural acceptance of inequality --------------> ↑ Aggression

Integrated Model: Factors Influencing Aggression Across Cultures

[Individual Factors]               [Environmental Contexts]

   | Gender Identity                     | Physical Environment

   | Age / Development                   | Social Environment

   | Beliefs & Norms                      |

   ---------------------------------------

                 |

                 v

             [Aggression & Violence]

                 |

        Modulated by Cultural Context

This integrated model shows that aggression emerges from the interaction of individual, environmental, and cultural factors. Interventions should target multiple levels simultaneously, including gender socialization, legal education, cultural belief reform, and environmental improvements.

Aggression Risk Matrix: Integrated Framework Across Cultures

Factor Category	Specific Variable	Effect on Aggression	Protective / Risk Mechanism	Cultural Modulation	Key References
Individual	Masculine identity	↑ proactive aggression	Social dominance reinforcement	Stronger in patriarchal societies	Bosson, 2025
	Gender uncertainty	↑ defensive aggression	Threat response	Heightened in cultures with strict gender norms	Bosson, 2025
	Adolescence (age)	↑ impulsive / peer-influenced aggression	Cognitive & emotional development	Cross-cultural, shaped by social norms	Adhia et al., 2024; Fan et al., 2025
	Legal cognition	↓ aggression	Awareness of rules and consequences	Universal; effectiveness amplified by environmental support	Fan et al., 2025
Beliefs & Norms	Negative gender role beliefs	↑ intimate partner / interpersonal violence	Justification of aggression	Stronger in hierarchical cultures	Nagoshi et al., 2024
	Positive gender beliefs	↓ aggression	Egalitarian social expectations	Protective across cultures	Nagoshi et al., 2024
	Relational aggression norms	↑ peer-directed aggression	Social acceptance of exclusion/bullying	Varies by collectivist vs. individualist societies	Springer, 2023
Environmental	Natural environment (green spaces, low pollution)	↓ aggression	Stress reduction, restorative environments	Universally protective	Fan et al., 2025
	Harsh physical environment (heat, crowding)	↑ aggression	Physiological arousal, irritability	Cross-cultural, may be moderated by social norms	Global meta-analysis, 2025
	Social environment (legal enforcement, societal support)	↓ aggression	Norm reinforcement & supervision	Amplified in cultures valuing the rule of law	Fan et al., 2025; Nagoshi et al., 2024

Aggression Risk Matrix in Action

[Individual Factors]      [Beliefs & Norms]       [Environmental Contexts]

       |                        |                        |

       v                        v                        v

   [Masculine/Gender]    [Role Beliefs / Norms]   [Green Spaces / Heat]

   [Age/Development]                                 [Legal Cognition]

       |                        |                        |

       ---------------------------> [Aggression Risk] <-----------------------

                                    ↑           ↓

                               ↑ Protective  ↑ Risk

                               ↓             ↓

                     Cultural Context Modulates Effects

Explanation:

• Risk factors (↑ aggression) include masculine identity, gender uncertainty, negative gender beliefs, harsh physical environments, and permissive cultural norms.
• Protective factors (↓ aggression) include positive gender beliefs, legal cognition, adolescence with a supportive environment, and natural environments.
• Cultural context acts as a lens that amplifies or dampens the effects of these factors, explaining cross-cultural variations in aggression.

Integrated Aggression Risk Matrix Across the Lifespan

Life Stage	Factor Category	Specific Variable	Effect on Aggression / Behavior	Mechanism / Rationale	Red Flags	Intervention / Mitigation
Adolescence	Individual	Age / developmental stage	↑ impulsive, peer-influenced aggression	Ongoing cognitive & socioemotional development	Conflict escalation, rule-breaking	Legal education, mentoring, structured routines
	Gender / Identity	Masculine identity, gender uncertainty	↑ proactive/defensive aggression	Social dominance, identity threat	Bullying, peer conflict, and defensive behaviors	Positive gender socialization, supportive environments
	Beliefs / Norms	Peer and cultural norms	↑ relational aggression, social exclusion	Normative reinforcement	Social withdrawal, exclusionary behaviors	Social skills training, anti-bullying programs
	Environment	Green space, supportive community	↓ aggression	Stress buffering, positive engagement	Behavioral dysregulation	Safe recreational areas, school/community programs
Adulthood	Individual	Chronic stress, trauma	↑ irritability, interpersonal conflict	HPA axis dysregulation, immune changes	Work-family conflict, sudden outbursts	Stress management, counseling, and workload adjustment
	Chronic Conditions	Pain, disability, multi-morbidity	↑ frustration, verbal/physical aggression	Physical discomfort, emotional dysregulation	Noncompliance, verbal aggression	Pain management, rehabilitation, psychosocial support
	Beliefs / Norms	Gender, hierarchical roles	↑ intimate partner violence	Justification of aggression	Domestic conflict, coercive behavior	Gender-equity programs, conflict resolution
	Environment	Workplace, social support	↑ / ↓ aggression depending on support	Environmental stressors or buffering	Burnout, social withdrawal	Social support networks, positive organizational culture
Aging / Older Adults	Individual	Cognitive decline, neurodegeneration	↑ irritability, agitation, impulsivity	Reduced executive function, emotion regulation deficits	Sundowning, restlessness, verbal aggression	Cognitive stimulation, caregiver support, structured routines
	Stress	Chronic psychological stress	↑ emotional dysregulation	HPA axis dysregulation, inflammatory processes	Sleep disruption, caregiver conflict	Mindfulness, stress-reduction programs
	Chronic Conditions	Multi-morbidity, pain	↑ frustration, agitation	Physical discomfort → mood dysregulation	Recurrent complaints, aggression	Pain management, assistive devices, therapy
	Environment	Living conditions, caregiver support	↓ / ↑ aggression	Environmental stressors or buffering	Social withdrawal, conflicts	Safe environment, routine, social engagement
Terminal Illness / End-of-Life	Individual	Disease progression, delirium	↑ terminal agitation, restlessness	Neurological dysregulation, pain	Striking out, agitation, confusion	Palliative care, pharmacologic interventions
	Psychological	Death anxiety, existential distress	↑ irritability, withdrawal	Coping deficit, emotional dysregulation	Withdrawal, mood changes	Counseling, emotional support, legacy work
	Environment	Hospice/hospital environment	↓ / ↑ aggression	Structured care reduces stress; chaotic care increases agitation	Behavioral outbursts	Interdisciplinary care, family training, safe spaces

 

 Lifespan Aggression Framework

[Adolescents]                  [Adults]                   [Aging / Older Adults]          [Terminal Illness]

    |                             |                              |                               |

    v                             v                              v                               v

[Individual Factors]           [Individual Factors]           [Individual Factors]          [Individual Factors]

  - Age / Development            - Chronic Stress              - Cognitive Decline            - Disease Progression

  - Gender / Identity            - Trauma                     - Neurodegeneration           - Delirium

                                - Chronic Conditions          - Multi-morbidity

                                - Beliefs & Norms             - Chronic Pain

[Beliefs / Norms]               [Beliefs / Norms]             [Beliefs / Norms]             [Psychological Factors]

  - Peer / Cultural Norms        - Gender Roles               - Societal Beliefs            - Death Anxiety

  - Relational Aggression        - Hierarchies                - Role Expectations

[Environmental Contexts]        [Environmental Contexts]      [Environmental Contexts]      [Environmental Contexts]

  - Green Spaces                 - Workplace Support           - Living Conditions            - Hospice / Care Environment

  - Community Programs           - Social Support             - Caregiver Support           - Structured Care / Safety

          \                        |                              |                               /

           \                       |                              |                              /

            -------------------------> [Aggression / Behavioral Dysregulation] <----------------------

                                         ↑                        ↓

                                Red Flags / Early Warning Signs

                                Intervention: Biopsychosocial, Multimodal

Key Points of the Lifespan Aggression Framework

1. Multifactorial: Aggression arises from interacting individual, psychosocial, and environmental factors.
2. Developmentally sensitive: Risk factors vary across life stages—from peer-influenced adolescent aggression to terminal agitation in older adults.
3. Red Flags: Sudden behavioral changes, irritability, conflict escalation, verbal or physical outbursts, sundowning, withdrawal.
4. Multimodal Interventions: Combine biological (medication, pain management), psychological (therapy, stress reduction), and environmental (structured routines, caregiver support) strategies.
5. Cultural Context: Beliefs, gender norms, family structures, and caregiving expectations modulate risk and protective factors.
6. Aggression and behavioral dysregulation in aging, chronic illness, and terminal conditions are multifactorial, shaped by biological, psychological, and environmental factors. Early identification of red flags and implementation of multimodal interventions can reduce distress, improve quality of life, and prevent harm to patients and caregivers. Integrating theoretical frameworks (biopsychosocial, stress-diathesis, neurocognitive aging) guides understanding and intervention, while future research should explore personalized and culturally sensitive approaches.
7. Cross-Cultural Research: Aggression and behavioral dysregulation manifest differently across cultures due to caregiving norms, family structures, and attitudes toward aging and illness. For example, 
   • Sudden onset of aggression or agitation in older adults
   • Sundowning: evening confusion or irritability
   • Nonverbal signs of distress (restlessness, pacing, vocalizations)
   • Pain expression via aggression or irritability
   • Social withdrawal or conflict escalation
8. Multidisciplinary Training: Enhancing caregiver and clinician training in behavioral management, early red flag recognition, and palliative communication strategies.

References

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Alhazzaa, O. A., Abahussin, H. M., Alotaibi, M. S., Alkhrayef, M. N., & Alhamdan, Z. A. (2026). Molecular pathways linking chronic psychological stress to accelerated aging: Mechanisms and interventions. Frontiers in Aging, 1743142. https://doi.org/10.3389/fragi.2026.1743142

BMC Psychology. (2025). The mediating role of life satisfaction, social support, and loneliness in elder abuse and death anxiety in Iranian older adults.

Bosson, J. K. (2025). Gender identity and aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 76, 635–661. https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-020124-115456/

Christian, L. M., Wilson, S. J., Madison, A. A., Prakash, R. S., Burd, C. E., & Rosko, A. E. (2023). Understanding the health effects of caregiving stress: New directions in molecular aging. Ageing Research Reviews, 92, 102096. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37898293

Cleveland Clinic. (2024). Terminal agitation: Signs, causes, and support. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/terminal-agitation

Fan, L., Chen, Y., Zou, X., & Xu, S. (2025). Natural environment satisfaction moderates the protective effect of legal cognition on adolescent aggression. Frontiers in Psychology. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1668723/full

Nagoshi, C. T., Akter, F., Nagoshi, J. L., & Pillai, V. (2024). Positive and negative gender role beliefs and intimate partner violence. Violence and Victims. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39107069/

PMC. (2023). Behavioral and psychological symptoms in older adults with dementia. PMC Articles. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9453913

Springer article on relational aggression across cultures. (2023). Journal of School/Developmental Aggression Research. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40894-023-00207-x