Perception is the process by which the brain interprets sensory input to form an understanding of the environment. This interpretation is governed by complex neurocircuitry that involves multiple brain regions working in concert to transform raw sensory data into meaningful experiences. The primary cortical areas for perception are the primary sensory cortices, such as the visual cortex, auditory cortex, and somatosensory cortex, which receive input from sensory organs via the thalamic relay. For example, the visual system comprises the retina, the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus, and the primary visual cortex (V1), located in the occipital lobe (Purves et al., 2018). From there, information is distributed along the ventral ("what") and dorsal ("where/how") streams for object identification and spatial processing, respectively (Goodale & Milner, 1992). Auditory perception begins in the cochlea, projects to the medial geniculate nucleus, and then to the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. Somatosensory input from the skin and internal organs is relayed via the thalamus to the primary somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe (Kandel et al., 2013).
Higher-order processing occurs in association cortices, which integrate information across modalities. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a pivotal role in directing attention, predicting outcomes, and integrating sensory data with memory and emotion (Miller & Cohen, 2001). The hippocampus and amygdala also influence perception by providing emotional and contextual relevance to stimuli (Pessoa, 2008). The functional role of this neurocircuitry is to create a coherent and actionable model of the environment. This model is not a direct replication of the external world but a constructed experience shaped by attention, prior knowledge, and expectations (Friston, 2010). Perception is inherently predictive, with the brain using past experiences to anticipate incoming sensory data, a process described by the predictive coding theory.
Because perception is fundamentally inferential meaning the brain interprets incomplete sensory input using prior knowledge, expectations, and context, what we experience as “reality” is not an objective reflection of the external world, but a constructed internal model. This model is shaped by both bottom-up sensory input and top-down cognitive influences, leading to individual and situational variations in perceived reality (Friston, 2010; Summerfield & Egner, 2009). Top-down processing plays a crucial role in shaping perception. Factors such as beliefs, emotions, motivations, memories, and cultural background all influence how we interpret incoming stimuli. For instance, a neutral facial expression may be perceived as threatening by someone with heightened anxiety due to a hyperactive amygdala response and biased interpretation circuits in the prefrontal cortex (Pessoa, 2008). Similarly, expectations derived from past experiences can cause the brain to "fill in" missing sensory information, sometimes incorrectly, leading to phenomena like optical illusions or false memories (Summerfield & Egner, 2009).
In clinical conditions like schizophrenia, the prediction error mechanisms of the brain—which help detect mismatches between expected and actual sensory input—are believed to be impaired. This dysfunction, involving regions like the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and dopaminergic midbrain, can cause hallucinations or delusions, where internally generated thoughts are misattributed to external sources (Corlett et al., 2009). In PTSD, the amygdala becomes hyperresponsive to threat-related stimuli, while the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex fail to properly contextualize or inhibit this response, leading to persistent, maladaptive perceptions of danger in safe environments (Hayes et al., 2012) Beyond localized brain regions, large-scale neural networks like the Default Mode Network (DMN) and the Salience Network significantly influence what enters conscious awareness. The DMN—active during introspection, mind-wandering, and autobiographical thinking—can dominate perception by coloring external stimuli with internally generated thoughts or narratives (Menon, 2011). For example, during daydreaming or rumination, real-world stimuli may be filtered out or interpreted through the lens of internal dialogue, skewing one’s perception of reality.
The Salience Network, which includes the anterior insula and anterior cingulate cortex, acts as a gatekeeper that determines which stimuli are most relevant or “salient” at a given time. This network helps switch attention between the DMN and externally focused networks, shaping what information is prioritized in consciousness. Disruptions in this balance, seen in disorders such as depression, autism, and psychosis, can lead to abnormal filtering or enhancement of stimuli, further distorting subjective reality (Menon, 2011). Even in non-clinical populations, individual differences in neural connectivity and cognitive style can lead to unique perceptual realities. For example, people with high sensory sensitivity may experience more vivid and intense perceptions due to increased activation in sensory cortices and reduced gating by top-down control (Kandel et al., 2013). Likewise, cultural background can influence neural activation patterns in response to the same visual or auditory input, demonstrating that even biologically similar brains may experience the world differently based on learned frameworks and values.
The Illusory Truth Effect refers to the phenomenon where repeated exposure to a statement increases its perceived truthfulness, even when the statement is false (Hasher et al., 1977). This effect demonstrates a profound disconnect between objective reality, perception, and perceived reality, mediated by cognitive biases and neurocognitive processes that govern attention, memory, and belief formation.
Therefore,
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Reality refers to the objective state of the world—facts that exist independent of individual interpretation.
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Perception is the process by which sensory and cognitive systems gather and interpret information about the environment.
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Perceived reality is the subjective mental representation of reality, which may or may not align with objective facts. This internal model is influenced by prior experiences, emotional states, cognitive biases, and the frequency with which information is encountered.
Within the Illusory Truth Effect, repeated exposure increases perceptual fluency—the ease with which information is processed. The brain mistakes this fluency for truth, causing the individual to perceive a familiar statement as more credible (Fazio et al., 2015). This transformation from perception (processing of a statement) to perceived reality (“this feels true”) illustrates how subjective belief can diverge from objective fact.
Neuroimaging studies suggest that the medial prefrontal cortex, involved in schema activation and belief updating, plays a central role in the Illusory Truth Effect (Zwaan et al., 2012). The hippocampus, typically responsible for fact-based memory, is often bypassed in favor of processing fluency signals coming from the perceptual and associative cortices, leading to the misattribution of familiarity as truth (Unkelbach & Rom, 2017). Additionally, the Default Mode Network (DMN)—associated with internal mentation and autobiographical memory—can contribute to integrating repeated information into one’s personal belief system, reinforcing perceived reality even in the absence of empirical evidence (Menon, 2011).
The Illusory Truth Effect exemplifies how perception is not a neutral gateway to reality, but a biased, memory-influenced filter. When information is repeated, it feels more fluent and thus more familiar. Because the brain equates ease of processing with truthfulness, this fluency bias alters the internal reality model—leading individuals to perceive falsehoods as truths (Hasher et al., 1977; Fazio et al., 2015). This effect is especially powerful in contexts of misinformation, such as political propaganda, advertising, or social media echo chambers, where repeated exposure to false or misleading statements gradually shapes perceived reality, often in conflict with objective reality.
Perceived reality—shaped by individual perception, emotional valence, and cognitive biases—strongly influences social behavior and interpersonal dynamics. When individuals internalize repeated information (whether true or false), their attitudes, judgments, and behaviors adjust accordingly (Fazio et al., 2015). This is especially significant when such perceptions relate to others’ intentions, political ideologies, or social group identities. For example, if a person repeatedly encounters media suggesting a particular social group is threatening, the Illusory Truth Effect can reinforce prejudiced beliefs, leading to biased interactions, stereotyping, and social exclusion (Hasher et al., 1977). These distorted perceptions contribute to the polarization of social relationships, where individuals increasingly engage in confirmation bias—seeking relationships and information that align with their perceived reality, while avoiding contradictory viewpoints (Nickerson, 1998).
Moreover, interpersonal conflicts often stem from divergent subjective realities, where individuals act based not on what is objectively true, but on what feels true to them—a reality constructed through repeated exposure, memory distortions, and emotional reinforcement. At a broader level, social cohesion and empathy are deeply affected by the alignment or misalignment of perceived realities among individuals and groups. When perceived reality diverges significantly across populations (e.g., due to echo chambers or cultural disinformation), social fragmentation and tribalism can emerge (Sunstein, 2001). Common ground becomes difficult to establish when each group operates under a different “truth,” undermining interconnectedness, trust, and cooperative behavior. Group membership itself can influence perception: research in social neuroscience shows that in-group/out-group biases alter neural responses to others’ pain or success, modulated by the medial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and anterior insula—regions implicated in empathy and social valuation (Cikara et al., 2011).
Media environments heavily exploit the Illusory Truth Effect by repeating simplified, emotionally charged messages, especially through headlines, memes, or short-form videos. Repeated exposure to emotionally salient or ideological content, even without critical engagement, can significantly shape public opinion, reinforce stereotypes, and fuel political extremism (Pennycook et al., 2018). The brain’s natural tendency toward cognitive economy, preferring quick, familiar judgments over effortful analysis, makes it susceptible to heuristic shortcuts that the media can manipulate. The more fluently information is processed (due to repetition), the more credible and less scrutinized it becomes, even in the absence of supporting evidence (Unkelbach & Rom, 2017).
Social media amplifies this effect through algorithmic reinforcement, selectively exposing users to familiar narratives that align with their cognitive and emotional preferences, reinforcing cognitive silos and further shaping individual neurocognitive responses to truth and belief. Chronic exposure to emotionally charged, repetitive, or misleading information does not just affect cognition—it can rewire neurocircuitry over time. Long-term changes have been observed in the default mode network (DMN), salience network, and prefrontal-limbic connections, particularly when individuals are frequently exposed to misinformation or emotionally manipulative content (Menon, 2011).
For example:
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Amygdala hyperactivation may occur in individuals regularly exposed to fear-based messaging, increasing anxiety and bias in threat perception.
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Prefrontal cortex regions, which mediate executive control and critical thinking, may be bypassed or weakened with frequent reliance on emotional, fast-acting heuristics (Miller & Cohen, 2001).
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Hippocampal engagement, essential for contextual memory and reality-testing, may be diminished when information is accepted without scrutiny due to its familiarity.
This neuroplasticity illustrates how perceived reality is not just psychologically malleable, but biologically adaptable—the brain’s structure and function can shift in response to the quality, quantity, and emotional salience of information it processes. The construction of perceived reality—shaped by perception, memory, attention, and repeated information exposure—does not occur in isolation within the brain. Instead, it influences and is influenced by interconnected biological systems. The brain-body interface, governed by networks like the autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, and immune system, interacts dynamically with cognitive processing, emotion, and attention. As a result, distortions in perceived reality—such as those driven by the Illusory Truth Effect—can lead to systemic physiological changes, affecting overall health, stress regulation, and behavior.
The neurovisceral integration model describes how the brain's control centers regulate bodily systems through the autonomic nervous system (ANS), particularly the vagus nerve and its central connections (Thayer & Lane, 2000). The prefrontal cortex, insula, anterior cingulate cortex, and amygdala all contribute to both emotional perception and autonomic regulation (e.g., heart rate, respiration, digestion). When perception is distorted—such as when repeated false information triggers chronic stress responses or sustained emotional arousal—the brain can dysregulate the ANS, contributing to:
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Elevated cortisol and adrenaline levels via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
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Decreased vagal tone, which reduces parasympathetic regulation and resilience to stress
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Increased heart rate variability (HRV) suppression, a marker of reduced emotional and cognitive flexibility
Such changes can lead to long-term allostatic load, weakening resilience and increasing vulnerability to disease (McEwen, 1998). Perceived reality shapes emotional and cognitive responses, which in turn affect immune function. Repeated exposure to emotionally charged, misleading, or anxiety-inducing content—especially through media—can shift the immune system toward a pro-inflammatory state via chronic activation of the sympathetic nervous system and cytokine release (Dhabhar, 2014).
This stress-induced immune modulation has been linked to:
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Inflammatory diseases (e.g., cardiovascular disease, autoimmune conditions)
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Reduced immunocompetence, increasing susceptibility to infections
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Neuroinflammation, which affects mood regulation, memory, and decision-making
Repeated cognitive reinforcement of negative or false narratives can thus alter immune function, mediated by distorted perception and emotional processing. Distorted or biased perception—such as from illusion-based belief formation or chronic exposure to misinformation—can alter large-scale brain network connectivity, affecting brain integration.
Key brain networks include:
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Default Mode Network (DMN): Engaged in self-referential thinking and narrative generation; overly active in rumination or delusional belief formation (Menon, 2011)
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Salience Network (SN): Detects and filters emotionally relevant stimuli; guides the brain in switching between internal (DMN) and external attention (Menon, 2011)
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Central Executive Network (CEN): Supports working memory and top-down regulation of attention; reduced connectivity here correlates with diminished critical thinking (Miller & Cohen, 2001)
Disturbances in these networks, especially in the context of repeated misinformation, can lead to hyperconnectivity within the DMN and SN, and hypoconnectivity in the CEN, resulting in:
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Difficulty distinguishing fact from belief
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Reduced metacognitive awareness
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Persistence of distorted internal models of reality
This pattern mirrors disruptions seen in disorders like schizophrenia, PTSD, and major depression, where brain network desynchronization alters the integration of emotional, cognitive, and perceptual processing. Repeated exposure to specific types of information or emotional stimuli—especially when not critically evaluated—can lead to long-term structural and functional brain changes via experience-dependent neuroplasticity.
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The hippocampus, responsible for contextual memory and reality-testing, may shrink under chronic stress or distorted memory reinforcement (Lupien et al., 2009)
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The amygdala, involved in threat detection, becomes hyperresponsive with repeated fear-based messaging, heightening emotional reactivity.
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The prefrontal cortex, especially the dorsolateral and ventromedial areas responsible for critical evaluation and inhibitory control, may undergo synaptic pruning or diminished activity under conditions of passive information consumption.
Over time, this can entrench habitual patterns of distorted thinking, including susceptibility to the Illusory Truth Effect, resulting in altered neurocognitive baselines for attention, reasoning, and social evaluation. Perceived reality is not confined to the mind—it is deeply embedded in and dynamically interacts with the body’s biological systems. Through repeated exposure, emotional reinforcement, and biased cognitive processing, perception can induce long-lasting changes in brain network integration, autonomic regulation, immune response, and neuroplastic adaptation. These changes influence behavior, social interactions, and health outcomes, highlighting the necessity of critical awareness, media literacy, and neurocognitive resilience in an increasingly information-saturated world.
The construction of perceived reality, influenced by repeated exposure to information, emotional experiences, and cognitive biases such as the Illusory Truth Effect, has far-reaching consequences on interpersonal relationships and overall quality of life. When individuals adopt distorted internal models of truth or interpret ambiguous social cues through biased lenses, it can lead to increased interpersonal conflict, mistrust, and aggression, which degrade social bonds and psychological well-being. Distorted perception alters how individuals interpret social signals, such as tone, facial expression, or intention. When these cues are perceived as threatening or disrespectful—especially in the absence of objective justification—it increases the likelihood of reactive aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). This process is often automatic, driven by heightened amygdala activity and reduced top-down inhibition by the prefrontal cortex, particularly in emotionally charged environments (Blair, 2016). Repeated exposure to misinformation or emotionally provocative content (e.g., hostile political messaging, social media outrage) can shift perception toward hostility bias—the tendency to interpret ambiguous social cues as aggressive—which is strongly associated with verbal aggression, relational conflict, and partner violence (Dodge & Crick, 1990).
The Illusory Truth Effect, whereby repeated information is perceived as true regardless of its factual accuracy, can reinforce aggressive social norms when people are repeatedly exposed to hostile or divisive rhetoric (Fazio et al., 2015). Over time, this reinforces beliefs that aggression is acceptable, even necessary, in resolving conflict or asserting dominance. Social media platforms and certain news outlets perpetuate this effect by algorithmically amplifying sensational, fear-inducing, or combative content. This repeated exposure:
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Desensitizes individuals to aggression
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Normalizes hostile communication
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Triggers emotional reactivity, particularly in contentious interpersonal settings
This not only escalates conflict in romantic relationships, friendships, and workplace dynamics, but also contributes to cynicism, paranoia, and emotional isolation—all of which reduce overall quality of life (Krahé & Möller, 2010). Aggression is closely tied to dysfunction within specific neurocognitive circuits, particularly those involving:
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Amygdala: Heightened reactivity in response to perceived threat
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Prefrontal cortex (PFC): Impaired regulation of impulsive or emotional responses
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Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC): Dysfunction in error detection and social evaluation
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Orbitofrontal cortex: Deficits in empathy and social decision-making (Blair, 2016)
When distorted perception repeatedly activates these pathways—particularly in emotionally unstable individuals or those with a history of trauma—neural plasticity can entrench these aggressive response patterns, increasing both reactive and proactive aggression in interpersonal contexts. The cumulative effect of aggressive behavior, distorted interpersonal perception, and social alienation significantly reduces quality of life. Key factors include:
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Loss of trust and intimacy in personal relationships
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Workplace conflict and social withdrawal
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Increased stress and reduced emotional regulation
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Mental health deterioration, including anxiety, depression, and burnout
Furthermore, individuals immersed in hostile informational environments—especially those reinforcing adversarial beliefs or fear-based narratives—are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion, social detachment, and lowered life satisfaction (Gentile et al., 2004; Kross et al., 2013). Improving media literacy, promoting emotional intelligence, and strengthening critical thinking skills are essential strategies for mitigating the impact of distorted perceived reality on aggression and relationship health. Encouraging empathy, open dialogue, and cognitive reappraisal can restore more accurate social perceptions and improve relational dynamics (Gross, 2002). Additionally, therapeutic interventions that target perception and cognitive distortion, such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) or Compassion-Focused Therapy (CFT), have been shown to reduce aggression and improve social connection by recalibrating internal models of reality.
Final Takeaways
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Perception Is Constructed, Not Passive
Human perception is an inferential and reconstructive process. The brain integrates bottom-up sensory input with top-down cognitive frameworks—shaped by memory, attention, emotion, and expectation—to form perceived reality, which can diverge significantly from objective reality. -
Repetition Alters Belief Through the Illusory Truth Effect
The Illusory Truth Effect demonstrates that repeated information—regardless of factual accuracy—feels more believable over time. This cognitive bias, driven by processing fluency, influences personal belief systems and behaviors, even among well-informed individuals. -
Distorted Perception Affects Social Behavior and Aggression
Biased or emotionally charged perceptions, reinforced through media or social discourse, can lead to hostile attribution biases, fueling reactive aggression, interpersonal conflict, and social division. These distortions degrade relationship quality, reduce empathy, and undermine community cohesion. -
Media Exposure Can Rewire the Brain and Body
Chronic exposure to emotionally provocative or misleading content alters not just beliefs but brain structure and function. It disrupts large-scale networks (DMN, CEN, SN), affects the autonomic nervous system, and promotes stress-related immune and hormonal dysregulation, impacting long-term mental and physical health. -
Quality of Life Declines with Perceptual Distortion
As perceived reality becomes skewed, individuals may experience emotional exhaustion, social withdrawal, lowered satisfaction, and increased susceptibility to anxiety, depression, and aggression. Distorted realities limit emotional regulation, decision-making, and relational depth. -
Interventions Are Possible and Necessary
Enhancing media literacy, fostering critical thinking, and promoting emotional regulation strategies are essential for resisting cognitive distortions. Therapeutic interventions like CBT, mindfulness, and compassion-focused approaches can help recalibrate perception and restore healthier relational dynamics and self-awareness.
